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Water lilies and lotus are good source of food, nutrition and medicine. Carbohydrate is the major sources of water lilies and lotus. Phenolic and flavonoids are the main phytochemicals in water lilies and lotus. Phytochemicals are responsible for health benefits of water lilies and lotus.

Abstract

Water lilies and lotus are regarded as good source of food, nutrition, and medicinal purposes. This review assessed scientific evidence for application of fifteen species of water lilies and lotus as functional and nutraceutical food ingredient in food and pharmaceutical industries. The nutritional value and phytochemical compounds of lotus and water lilies were reviewed. Additionally, the health benefits of water lilies and lotus as anti-inflammatory, hepato-protective, anti-hyperglycaemic, anti-hyperlipidaemic, and anticancer were highlighted. Water lilies and lotus could be commercially cultivated, harvested and processed to feed the increasing human population. Future studies should be conducted on physicochemical, thermal, rheological and pasting properties of major components i.e. starch of water lilies and lotus. Additionally, in vivo and in vitro studies should be explored to address safety, toxicity and cytotoxicity of water lilies and lotus for application in food and pharmaceutical industries.

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Keywords

Food

Health

Lotus

Medicine

Nutrition

Water lilies

1. Introduction

Food and Agricultural Organization is concerned that the world would not produce enough food to meet the demand for the ever-increasing population expected to be 10 billion by 2050 putting challenge to crop scientists to meet this growing demand (Parihar et al., 2022). Today, many people suffer from hunger and malnutrition despite there can be many potential edible aquatic plants are available in water which can be used as a food. Non-conventional, lesser-known edible aquatic plants are promising to feed the unabated population growth (Das et al., 2021). Edible aquatic plants refer to macroscopic aquatic plants that are found in lakes, ponds, streams, rivers and waterlogged soils (Chai, Ooh, Quah, & Wong, 2015). Aquatic plants are classified as partially or totally submerged, free floating, rooted floating leaf type or emergent plants (Sharma & Singh, 2017).

Globally 3000 plants have been used as food by humans throughout history and at least 150 of those plants have been grown commercially. However, over the centuries there has been a tendency to concentrate on fewer and fewer plants so that today most of the world’s people are fed by about 20 crop species. The emergent macrophyte rice species, Oryza sativa, is the only aquatic plant that is the most significant single crop in the world and constitutes a staple food for more than 50% of the world’s population (Bin Rahman & Zhang, 2022). The cultivation of aquatic plants is a grossly neglected area and it is timely to consider such neglected edible aquatic plants to determine their potential role in increasing human food supply. More than 40 species of edible freshwater aquatic plants were thought to exist but only around 25% of these species are now being grown for food on a large scale or have the potential to become cultivable in a way that is economically feasible. Cognizant of these facts, edible aquatic plants are alternative food, contains sufficient nutrient for nutritional needs, food supplements, health, and potential drugs (Hernawati et al., 2022). This current review highlights the nutritional, food, anti-oxidant and health importance of the two prominent edible aquatic plants; water lilies and lotus. Water lilies belongs to the family Nymphaeaceae where as sacred lotus belongs to the family Nelumbonaceae. The leaves and flowers of water lilies (Nymphaea) float on the water’s surface, however, the leaves and flowers of lotus (Nelumbo) are emergent or rise above the water’s surface. The explored water lilies species were Nymphaea lotus, Nymphaea nouchali, Nymphaea pubescens, Nymphaea petersiana, Nymphaea stellata, Nymphaea odorata, Nymphaea alba, Nymphaea rubra, Nymphaea caerulea, Nymphaea micrantha, Nymphaea tetragona, Nymphaea antares, Nyhmphaea hybrid, Nymphaea indica, Nymphaea candida and lotus (Nelumbo nucifera).

2. Importance of water lilies and lotus

Water lilies and lotus are the most fascinating aquatic plants that regulate the ecosystem structure and functions of wetlands. They are receiving great attention from food technologists and nutritionists because of their nutritional value and health benefits. They possess phytochemicals that have great application in food and pharmaceutical industries (Debbarma et al., 2022). Several edible aquatic plants are nutritionally important for human beings, so it is necessary to explore alternative healthy ingredients. The edible aquatic plants are significant to supply nutrients for nutritional needs, food supplements, health and drugs (Hernawati et al., 2022). Edible aquatic plants can be used as food, nutritional, nutraceutical, functional, medicinal, cultural, social, industrial, economical and ecosystem benefits (Haroon, 2022). Water lilies are commonly used for treatment of several diseases in addition to their nutritional value (Nishan, 2020). But because of social and economic developments as well as modernization of lifestyles, and lack of knowledge, edible aquatic plants are mis-used (Butt et al., 2021). Water lilies and lotus produce perennial or annual rhizomes that can be used as food and in traditional medicine to cure a number of life threatening diseases.

2.1. Cultivation of water lilies and lotus

The major reasons for the low utilization of edible aquatic plants are lack of enough information regarding the nutritional value, cultivation, production, harvesting, processing and their food preparation techniques. These plants are neglected by agri-business, researchers, policymakers, investors and development practitioners (Rampa et al., 2020). The cultivable aquatic food crops are lotus, water lily, Euryale and water chestnut (Jana et al., 2019). Water lilies and lotus can grow, develop and produce seed. Naturally, lotus and water lilies grow with seeds in soil and water in paddy field (Rusmayadi & Khairina, 2015). Lotus grows under tropical and sub-tropical climate. The distribution mapping of N.pubescens was reported, it grows best at water depth (35-121 cm), a light penetration depth (23-100 cm), a water pH (6.25-8.37), and a sediment pH (3.33-4.69) (Yuliarti et al., 2022). The cultivation of lotus requires heavy, muddy and soil rich in organic matter. In Vietnam, lotus cultivation gained popularity and emerged as alternative to rice receiving attention from national and international actors (Vo et al., 2021). Lotus and water lilies grow easily in ponds, whiskey barrel or planter. The agronomic practices of lotus cultivation, propagation methods, planting distance, fertilizer application and yield quantity per hectare were reported (Jana, 2019). Lotus plant can propagate through seed/plantlet, planting distance (1 m x 1 m), fertilizer N: P: K (kg/ha) in the ratio of 100:60:40 and yield 1.5 ton per hectare (Jana et al., 2019). As similar to lotus, water lily can grow in ponds, lakes and perennial water bodies in all types of climate. Water lilies can propagate through either corm or seed. The ideal soil for water lily cultivation is soil rich organic matter. The plant need planting space of 1 m x 1 m, an ideal fertilizer rate of N: P: K (60:40:30) for growth and development, yield 25 tons per hectar (Jana, 2019). The study on the productivity of hairy water lily (N. pubescens) in Paharangan, Hambuku and Ampukung districts of Indonesia was reported that the water lily seeds were 0.653 t/ha, 1.057 t/ha and 1.121 t/ha, respectively (Rusmayadi & Khairina, 2015).

2.2. Harvesting and processing of water lilies and lotus

The rhizome of water lilies and lotus can be plucked from muddy or sand of water shore that can be either boiled or raw sliced, dried, grounded and finally combined with other grains to make different value added food products. Seedpods of water lilies and lotus can easily hand picked as the matured seedpods submerge in the water. The poppy seeds of water lilies are harvested from the pods. Inventing new technologies for the production, processing, and marketing of water lilies and lotus is crucial for increasing productivity of these aquatic crops (Jane, 2019).

3. Water lilies and lotus as food

Edible aquatic plants have organs that potentially provide food for humans due to their accumulated food reserves. The most significant of food reserves in edible aquatic plants are seeds, roots and rhizomes (Fig. 1). There are several old literatures that water lilies and sacred lotus are consumed as food. The rhizome of N.lotus is a useful human food in West Africa nations and consumed as either raw or cooked (Irvine, 1952). The seeds, leaves, stems or rhizomes of water lilies and lotus were reported to be consumed in Nigerian (Danhassan et al., 2018), Senegal (Gueye et al., 2020), Bolgatanga people of Ghana (Adanse et al., 2019), Guinea (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962), Malawi (Chawanje et al., 2001), Sudan (Ibrahim, 2007), Bangladesh (Khan, 2019), India (Jarapala et al., 2021), Thailand (Singthong & Meesit, 2017), Pakistan (Hujjatullah et al., 1967), as an emergency food during famines in Finland (Airaksinen, 1986), Kenya (Kabuye, 1986) and Ethiopia (Kloos, 1982). In some area of the world, the leaves and flowers were reported to be consumed as cooked vegetables, whereas in some other parts, the seeds were reported to be consumed as a grain or rhizome as starchy tubers. The rhizomes and seeds of N.lotus and N.nouchali were reported to be consumed during food shortage in Kara and Kwego people/lower Omo River valley of Ethiopia (Teklehaymanot & Giday, 2010). The Afar, Kereyu, Jille, and Arsi pastoralists groups throughout the Awash Valley in Ethiopia gathered wild plants during seasonal food shortages to supplements their predominant milk diet (Kloos, 1982). The Afar sought the tubers and seedpods of water lilies (N.caerulea), which they prepare as a porridge with milk, rhizomes of bulrush (Typha sp.) that are gathered after burning the stems, and the sweet roots of the swamp grass gedleboyta (Kloos, 1982). Moreover, around Lake Ziway, Ethiopia, Typha latifola, Arundo donex and Nymphaea lotus were reported to be the edible aquatic plants harvested as food (Merga, 2021). There are other aquatic plants that are used for human food but for the majority there are limited data available. Some of the edible aquatic plants that are consumed during shortage of foods are arundo, typha, cyperus, and echinochloa (personal observation).

The rhizome of lotus contains carbohydrate and energy to be exploited as staple foods. The energy and carbohydrate content of water lily rhizome can be higher than cultivated potatoes (Sukhija et al., 2016). Lotus rhizome was reported as good source of resistant starch for different food application (Sukhija et al., 2016). Seed and rhizome of water lilies and lotus could be processed in food product formulations and other applications (Bangar et al., 2022). The best way to prepare lotus rhizome is cooking that retain the nutritional composition and antixodant properties (Chen & Tegku Rozaina, 2020). Cooking of lotus rhizome improves its palatability. Chen and Tengku Rozaina (2020) reported that steaming has no effect on crude protein, fat, fiber, carbohydrate, vitamin C, potassium, zinc and copper contents of raw lotus rhizome. Different value added food products can be prepared from roots, rhizome, stems, leaves or seeds with plants or animal products (Table 1). Different parts of water lily like rhizomes, stems, leafs and flowers have great potential for food and non-food application as it contain good amount of starch, dietary fiber, vitamins and minerals (Showkat et al., 2021). Some of the bakery products developed using parts of water lily, fish and cereals are presented below. The flour of water lilies and lotus rhizome or seed can be combined with grain and pulse flour to combat the prevailing malnutrition (Jane, 2019).

Table 1. Different value added food products prepared from different parts of water lilies and lotus.

Edible aquatic plants	Anatomical parts of plants	Mode of consumption	Properties improved (physicochemical, functional, health benefits)	Bioactivities of the products	Refs.
Lotus	Roots	Bread sticks	Inclusion of 15% lotus flour to wheat flour in bread stick improved the nutrient, antioxidant, consumer acceptance and texture,	Functional and nutraceuticals bread	Thanushree et al. (2017)
Lotus	Roots	Unleavened flatbread	Inclusion of 15% lotus flour to wheat flour in traditional unleavened flatbread improved the consumer acceptance and texture.	Functional and nutraceutical flour	Saeed et al. (2021)
Lotus	Rhizome	Bread	Addition of 10% powder of Thai lotus (N.nucifera) rhizome was found to enhance bread quality and consumer acceptability	Functional and health food supplements	Singthong & Meesit (2017)
Loots	Roots	Chinese steamed bread	Chinese steamed bread prepared from 30% wheat substitution with lotus root powder improved cohesiveness, springiness and fluffy texture of bread	Hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic and antioxidant stress	Li et al. (2021)
Lotus	Roots	Soup, sausage, mayonnaise, salad dressing	Flour of lotus root high protein, high water/ oil absorption, high viscosities, good emulsion, stability, high temperature for gelatinization and pasting	–	Singthong & Meesit (2017)
Lotus	Roots	Fat mimetic biscuits	Replacing wheat flour at 15% with lotus root flour improves overall sensory acceptability, bioactive compounds, dietary fibers, and polyphenols	Improves antioxidant properties of biscuits	Saeed et al. (2021)
Lotus	Seed		Addition of lotus seed flour (2.5%−10%) increased phenolic content (217 mg/100 g), fibers (0.73 g/100 g) and higher sensory acceptability	Promote functional and health properties of consumer	Shahzad et al. (2021)
Lotus	Seed	Cookies	Incorporating multigrain and lotus seed flour in regular wheat flour increases WAC and OAC, but decreased emulsion activity and foam capacity	–	Dinkar & Mishra (2020)
Lotus	Seed	Noodles	5% substitution of lotus seed flour in wheat noodles was reported to improved higher fiber content (0.83%), ash content (0.9%), and phenolic content (0.019 mg/ GAE/100 mg) than control noodles	Alternative product with health benefits for consumers	Jirukkakul & Sengkhampam (2018)
Lotus	Stem	Cookies	Addition of 30% stem of lotus to refined flour improve the sensory acceptability and mouth feel, calcium, iron and total dietary fiber of cookies as compared to refined flour	Decrease micronutrient deficiencies in toddlers.	Khushboo et al. (2020)
Lotus	Seed	Patties	Incorporation of 10% fresh stem of lotus into chicken patties was found to enhance fiber in meat products	–Enhance fiber in meat products	(Bharti, Pathak, Goswami, Sharma, & Ojha, 2017)
Lotus	Rhizome	Port patties	Incorporation of 1% lotus rhizome root powder into cooked pork patties improved shelflife during storage	The patties had higher antimicrobial and antioxidant activity	Qiu & Chin (2022)
Lotus	Roots	Tofu Noodle	Replacement of wheat flour (5% to 10%) improve texture and antioxidant capacity but delayed starch digestion after cooking of tofu	Starchy vegetables of plant-based noodles for diabetic patients	Kim et al. (2021)
Lotus	Roots	Chicken nuggets	Addition of 3% N.nucifera roots powered increased pH values, cooking yield, emulsion stability, ash, fiber, moisture, carbohydrate, moisture retention, fat retention and moisture protein ratio. However, the addition reduced protein, fat, and energy values	improved the dietary fibers of meat nuggets	Verma et al. (2022)
N. lotus	Seeds	Muffins	Substitution of wheat flour (20% to 75%) with N.lotus seed was superior in protein, fat and fiber contents	–	Adanse et al. (2021)
N. lotus		Biscuits	Biscuit prepared from 80% wheat, 12% N. lotus, and 8% coconut flour was preferred most to that of the rest of biscuit samples produced.	Healthful wheat-coconut-nymphaea blend biscuit
N.pubescens	Seed	Cookies	Addition of 30% Olu seed flour with wheat flour in cookies recipes was acceptable to substitute	–	Nizam & Arampath (2016)
N. nouchali	Petal	Tea	Petal extracts of N.nouchali enhances the dietary intake of nutrients and acts as natural food preservative with no toxicity properties	No toxicity in plants, zebrafish embryo, and cell lines.	Dias et al. (2021)
Water lily cultivars	Petals	Tea beverages	Tea infusion have 29 volatile compounds	Physiologically and health function	Yin et al. (2015)

4. Nutritional value of water lilies and lotus

The rhizome and seed of water lilies (nymphaea) and sacred lotus (N.nucifera) are potential sources of proteins, carbohydrates, dietary fiber, vitamins and minerals that act as functional agent in meat products, baby foods, and in bakery industries (Singh, 2021).

4.1. Protein and amino acids contents

Several authors were reported the protein contents of raw and processed seed of N.louts (Danhassan et al., 2018), rhizome of N.petersiana (Chawanje et al., 2001), seed of N.pubescens (Aliyu et al., 2018), rhizome N.nouchali (Anand et al., 2019). The protein contents of raw or boiled seed, rhizome and stem of water lilies and lotus are presented in Table 2. The protein content of N.petersiana (8.1%) was higher than cassava (1.2%), sweet cassava (1.3%), potato (1.7%), sweet potato (1.6%), yams (3.2%) and N.lotus (5.2%). The rhizome of N. petersiana contains high protein content as compared to cereals such as maize, millets, rice and tubers like cassava, potato, sweet potato and yam. The protein content of green and red seed of N. lotus was reported as comparable to maize, wheat, sorghum, acha and rice (Laminu et al., 2021). Rhizome of N.lotus contains all essential amino acids which are higher than WHO/FAO requirements for adults, while leucine was found to be higher than what is recommend for preschool children as a requirement (Danhassan et al., 2018). Similarly, the seeds of N. lotus contain all essential amino acids (Lysine, Methionine, Tryptophan, Leucine, Isoleucine, Phenylalanine, Valine, Arginine, Histidine, and Threonine), eight non-essential amino acids (Glycine, Alanine, Glutamate, Proline, Tyrosine, Cystine, Serine and Aspartate), where as two non-essential amino acids (Glutamine and Asparagine) are missing (Danhassan et al., 2018). The presences of essential and non-essential amino acids in water lily are important for maintenance and anabolism of muscle protein.

Table 2. Proximate composition of rhizome, seed and stem of different Nymphaea species.

Parts of water lilies species	Proximate composition (% in dry basis)
	Protein	Fat	Ash	CHO	Refs.
Raw seed of N.lotus	16.31	3.7	1.87	71.7	Danhassan et al. (2018)
Boiled seed of N.lotus	15.5	3.45	0.7	74.3	Danhassan et al. (2018)
Boiled rhizome of N.nouchali	10.76	2.4	3.0	76.5	Anand et al. (2019)
Leafy shoots of N.nouchali	17.15	1.05	14.0	55.5	Hazra et al. (2018)
Seed of N.micrantha	7.9	2.71	0.4	77.6	Gueye et al. (2020)
Seed of N.lotus	7.93	2.32	0.71	74.49	Gueye et al. (2020)
Rhizome of N.lotus	21.66	5.07	8.34	41.92	Stephen et al. (2017)
Rhizome of N.lotus	15.17	8.08	11.2	46.06	Etse et al. (2018)
Seed of N.lotus	18.71	1.19	2.85	–	Keak et al. (2022)
Flower of N. lotus	15.63	2.9	8.93	59.89	Aung et al. (2020)

The presence of high content of essential amino acids in the seeds of N. lotus satisfies the recommended value by WHO/FAO (0.8 g/kg of body weight per day) (Danhassan et al., 2018). The seed of water lily can supply essential amino acids required for the growth and development in a superior way to other protein containing foods. The non-essential amino acids are a component of glutathione and precursor of gamma amino butyric acid which is neurotransmitter (Danhassan et al., 2018). The presence of all essential amino acids could make this rhizome of water lily as a food supplement for human(Chinelo & Jega, 2019) . The essential amino acids content of red and green seeds of N.lotus is higher than some common cereals consumed in Nigeria. The lysine content of N.lotus is as comparable to the values of maize and wheat higher than pearl millet, acha and sorghum. The methionine content of N.lotus seeds is higher than the value for wheat, maize, sorghum and millet (Laminu et al., 2021). The seeds of N.lotus and N. pubescens could meet up with the WHO ideal protein value for both children and adults. The level of arginine and histidine in the seeds warrants them to be recommended for children food since children need arginine and histidine in their foods (Aliyu et al., 2017a).

4.2. Dietary fiber contents

Dietary fiber either soluble or insoluble has positive effects to prevent constipation, regulate serum cholesterol level, maintain body weight, reduce the risk of diabetes, intestinal cancer and stimulate beneficial bacteria. The soluble and insoluble dietary fiber of N.lotus seed was reported to be 4.68% and 8.54% (Danhassan et al., 2018). The dietary fiber content in the Nymphaea spp. seeds is comparable to rice and millet that are important in the diets of population all over the world (Gueye et al., 2020). Tuber of N.nouchali is an economical dietary adjunct and functional food with significant macro and micro nutrient that can help fight against oxidative stress originating due to modern life style induced metabolic disorders (Anand et al., 2019). Meat nuggets supplemented with 3% root powder of N.nucifera was reported to have better potential source of dietary fibers (Verma et al., 2022).

4.3. Minerals content

The minerals content of different water lilies species have been reported (Table 3). In all the cases, different water lilies species have high ash content that has a direct relation with the minerals contents are recorded. Food containing low sodium is suggested to be suitable for hyperglycemic patients. The sodium (11.55 mg/100 g), magnesium (312.71 mg/100 g), potassium (481.1 mg/100 g) and calcium (188.81 mg/100 g) contents of N.lotus and sodium (13.52 mg/100 g), magnesium (518.67 mg/100 g), potassium (770.81 mg/100 g) and calcium (296.52 mg/100 g) contents for N.micrantha were reported close to other cereals consumed in the human diet in Senegal (Gueye et al., 2020). It was reported that 30 g seed of N.lotus can meet the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of iron for children of 1–3 years, 9–13 years and adults of 51–70 years (Danhassan et al., 2018). The iron content of uncooked sun dried of N.petersiana rhizome was reported 100 mg/100 g which can supply the recommended daily allowance of iron 88% for the children and 59% for women. This amount of iron reported in N.petersiana was reported to be higher than in the tubers such as potato (7 mg/g), cassava (78 mg/g) and sweet potatoes (20 mg/g) (Chawanje et al., 2001).

Table 3. Minerals content of different Nymphaea species.

Parts of Nymphaea species	Mineral content (mg/100 g)
	Ca	K	P	Na	Zn	Cu	Fe	Mg	Refs.
Raw seed of N.lotus	35	384	–	25.2	2.19	0.42	22.6	13	Danhassan et al. (2018)
Boiled seed of N.lotus	43	240	–	19.2	3.81	25.3	26.1	13.8	Danhassan et al. (2018)
Rhizome of N.nouchali	148	–	–	–	1.33	–	1.98	–	Anand et al. (2019)
Seed of N.lotus	188	481	–	11.5	–	–	–	312	Gueye et al. (2020)
Seed of N.micrantha	193	454	–	8.99	–	–	–	317	Gueye et al. (2020)
Green seed of N.lotus	33.1	–	81.1	–	–	–	3.47	61.1	Laminu et al. (2021)
Red seed of N lotus	61	–	69	–	–	–	4.05	47.1	Laminu et al. (2021)
Seed of N.nouchali	159	215	21.4	10.2	7.56	0.69	14.7	10.5	Jarapala et al. (2021)
Bulb of N.nouchali	3	746	98	441	–	–	–	91	Sayeed et al. (2021)
Seed of N. lotus	0.98	–	0.15	–	–	–	1.36	–	Anywar et al. (2017)
Flower of N. lotus	74.2	505	–	210	2.18	ND	5.09	51.9	Aung et al. (2020)
Rhizome of N.pubescens	336	968	66.7	66	1.33	1.36	36.1	114	Tresina, Doss, & Mohan, 2020
Rhizome of N.rubra	366	846	98	48	1.78	1.14	32	136	Tresina, Doss, & Mohan, 2020

Note that: (-) in the table indicates the Authors did not determine particular elements, ND= Not detected.

Food containing high potassium content is very suitable for hyperglycemic patients. The potassium content of seed or rhizome of different nymphaea species is higher as compared to other minerals. The highest amounts of potassium 870 mg/100 g and 981.29 mg/100 g was found in N.nouchali and N.rubra respectively. The presence of high potassium helps the body to maintain water balance in the muscles and nerve cells. Calcium, the elements that is important to regulate muscle and heart function, transmission of nervous system, formation and maintenance of bones and teeth was reported to be found in higher amounts in red and green seed of N.lotus as compared to maize, wheat, sorghum and pearl millet. Generally, the rhizome of N.lotus contains low sodium and high potassium which suggested it good source of food for hyperglycemic patients. Hence, the rhizome of N.lotus could serve as ingredient in food formulation and pharmaceutical industries (Wasagu et al., 2015).

4.4. Fatty acids contents

Adequate supply of omega 6 and 3 is a crucial to maintain the health of cardiovascular system. Generally, a food containing 1:1 to 5:1 ω-6: ω-3 ratio is considered optimal for human health (Patel et al., 2022). The management of chronic diseases depends on the availability of essential fatty acids such as linoleic acid, linolenic acid, and others supplied from foods. In this regards the rhizome of N.nouchali is in close proximity to the above suggestion that makes N.nouchali rhizome an ideal source of balanced dietary essential fatty acids (Anand et al., 2019). Anand et al. (2019) observed that N.nouchali as a rich source of dietary oleic acid. Similarly the seeds of N.lotus and N.pubescens were reported to possess good source of fatty acids (Aliyu et al., 2017b). The seeds of N.alba were reported to contain linoleic acid (37.5%) and oleic acid (10.9%) (Nengroo & Rauf, 2020). Compared to ω−3 or ω−6 fatty acids, dietary oleic acid is more resistant to oxidative stresses and provides protection against damage to cell membranes caused by free radicals. Oleic acid-rich diets are said to help hypertension individual’s high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and reduce blood pressure. Dietary oleic acid has recently been demonstrated to lower inflammatory levels brought on by obesity.

4.5. Vitamins contents

Vitamins are required in trace amounts by our body for metabolism and physiological functions to prevent diseases such as those associated with oxidative stress. Rhizome of N.lotus contains significant amount of carotenoids equivalent (51.3 mg/100 g) and vitamin C (24.65 mg/100 g) (Stephen et al., 2017). In another study conducted by Anand et al. (2019) boiled rhizome of water lily has 3.12 mg/100 g of ascorbic acid, 1.11 mg/100 g of riboflavin, 0.05 mg/100 g of thiamine and 1.45 mg/100 g of niacin. Green and red seed of N.lotus was found to contain higher riboflavin and thiamin contents than the values reported in maize, wheat, sorghum, acha and pearl millet.

4.6. Carbohydrate fractions

Seed and rhizome of water lily contains different fractions of carbohydrate. The major composition (50% dry weight) of lotus seed is starch (Dhull et al., 2022). The seed of lotus are important food item in many countries due to its low glycemic index food. Starch is an important source of dietary carbohydrates in human diet. However, the rapid digestion of starch allows the rapid rise in blood glucose which is looked upon negatively. Higher consumption of foods containing starch with low glycemic index is known to give better contribution to health particularly for those with obesity and diabetes mellitus 2. Resistant starch is not digested in the mouth, stomach, or small intestine but is fermented by microbial flora in the colon, which generates short-chain fatty acids that have potential health benefits. It has been observed that boiling of water lily seed reduces soluble sugars content (Danhassan et al., 2018). Accordingly, boiling of N.lotus seed was found to reduce glucose content from 0.77 mg/100 g to 0.44 mg/100 g, maltose from 1.31 mg/ 100 g to 0.84 mg/100 g and sucrose from 2.18 mg/100 g to 1.76 mg/100 g and fructose from 0.87 mg/100 g to 0.72 mg/100 g (Danhassan et al., 2018). Even though the rhizome contains high amounts of carbohydrate, boiled/freeze dried tuber of N.petersiana contains small quantities of water soluble sugars fructose 2.4 mg/100 g, glucose 3 mg/100 g and sucrose 0.05 mg/100 g. In addition to soluble sugars, ultrasonic-assisted extract of N.odorata mucilage possess polysaccharide called glucuronic (Zhi et al., 2018).

4.7. Phytochemical constituents

Phytochemical screening of water lilies and lotus indicate the presence of several bioactive compounds like phenolic, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, triterpenes, glycosides, carbohydrates, steroids and other compounds (Table 4). Phytometabolomic analysis of extracts of boiled rhizome of N.nouchali indicated the presence of several antihyperglycemic and antioxidant compounds (Anand et al., 2021). Metabolomic components like phenolic, alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, tannins, saponins, steroids (nymphayol) and glycosides were reported in the rhizome of water lily (Raja et al., 2010; Ramesh et al., 2022). The most widely used solvents to extract bioactive substance from water lilies and lotus are methanol, aqueous, ethanol, ethylacetate, chloroform, and petroleum ether. Additional the volatile compounds can be collected using Headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME). The use of different solvents for extraction and the analytical instruments helps to identify and quantify the phytochemcial in water lilies and lotus resulted in different constituents. Ethyl acetate and methanol extracts of N.antares was reported to contain rutin, myricetin, quercetin, kaempfrol, catechin, epigallocatechin and p-coumaric acid (Mohd et al., 2021). In particular the rhizome and seed of N.nucifera and water lilies possess different phytochemicals. There are several analytical instruments used to determine bioactive chemicals in plants. These instruments help to extract, concentrate, and separate volatile chemicals. Some of them are in-situ cloud point-reinforced ionic liquid-assisted mechanochemical extraction (IS-CPR-IL-MCE) coupled with UPLC, Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography combined with quadrupole time of flight tandem mass spectroscopy (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS^E), High performance liquid chromatography with a diode array detector (HPLC-DAD), Ultra performance liquid chromatography- electrospray ionization hybrid triple quadrupole linear ion trap-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-ESI-QqQ_LIT-MS/MS), LC-QqQ-MS, GC-MS, and UV-VIS spectrophotometer (Table 5).

Table 4. The major phytochemicals reported from different anatomical parts of lotus and water lilies.

Parts of edible aquatic plants	Solvents	Analytical instruments used	Major phytochemicals	Refs.
Tubers of N.nouchali	Methanol	HPLC-DAD	Rutin (39.44 mg), catechin (39.20 mg), ellagic acid (11.05 mg), gallic acid (3.67 mg), vanillic acid (0.75 mg), myricetin (30.77 mg), rosmarinic acid (4.81 mg), p-coumaric acid (3.35 mg), and quercetin (0.90 mg) in 1 g of dry extract.	Uddin et al. (2020)
Petal of N.nouchali	Methanol	GC-MS	Total flavonoids contents (5.32 mg QE/g), total phenolic contents (88.8 mg GAE/g), total tannin contents (47 mg TAE/g)	Dias et al. (2021
Black seed of N. lotus	–	UV-VIS spectrophotometer	Tannin (118.13 mg EAT/g DM), Total phenolic (1.95 mg EAG/g DM), Flavonoids (24.05 mg EC/g DM)	Gueye et al. (2022)
Red seed of N.lotus	–	UV-VIS spectrophotometer	Tannin (89.9 mg EAT/g DM), Total phenolic (1.39 mg EAG/g DM), Flavonoids (31.9 mg EC/g DM)	Gueye et al. (2022)
Seed of N.micranth	–	UV-VIS spectrophotometer	Tannin (38.12 mg EAT/g DM), Total phenolic (0.54 mg EAG/g DM), Flavonoids (27.03 mg EC/g DM)	Gueye et al. (2022)
Rhizome of N.nouchali	Aqueous: Methanol (1:1)	–	Polyphenols (0.12 mg/mL GAE), carotenoids (115.22 µg/100 g), anthocyanins (0.16%), lycopene (0.007 µg/100 g), phytate (149.86 mg/100 g), oxalate (24.97 mg/100 g) and flavonoids (50.63 mg/mL RE)	Anand et al. (2019)
Rhizome of N.nouchali	Aqueous: Methanol (1:1)	UPLC-Q-TOF-MSE, LC-QqQ-MS and GC-MS	The analysis revealed the presence of antihyperglycemic through α-glucosidase inhibitory and improves cellular glucose uptake and antioxidant	(Anand et al., 2021)
Bulbs of N.lotus	–	HPLC fitted with fluorescence detector	Phytate (3.68 mg/100 g), tannin (13.63 mg/100 g), saponins (4.89 mg/100 g), lycopene (1.96 mg/100 g), Cyanides (0.84 mg /100 g), Caffeine (4.68 mg/100 g), β-Carotene (5.62 mg/100 g), Rutin 0.87 mg/100 g	Stephen et al. (2017)
Tuber of N.nouchali	Hexane: Petroleum ether (1:1)	UV spectrophotometer	Total phenolic contents (0.49 mg GAE /100 g), total flavonoids contents (230.11 mg QE/100 g),	Nishan (2020)
Seed of N.nouchali	Hexane: Petroleum ether (1:1)	UV spectrophotometer	Total phenolic contents (4.25 mg/ GAE/100 g), total flavonoids contents (126.27 mg QE/100 g),	Nishan (2020)
Tuber of N.rubra	Hexane: Petroleum ether (1:1)	UV spectrophotometer	Total phenolic contents (2.03 mg/ GAE/100 g), total flavonoids contents (57.52 mg QE/100 g),	Nishan (2020)
Seed of N.rubra	Hexane: Petroleum ether (1:1)	UV spectrophotometer	Total phenolic contents (2.247 mg/ GAE/100 g), total flavonoids contents (32.24 mg QE/100 g),	Nishan (2020)
Leaf of N.alba	Methanol	HPLC-MS/MS LC-MS/MS	Polyphenols (19.42 mg Eq GA/100 mg), flavonoid (0.97 mg EqQ/100 mg), condensed tannin (0.5 mg EqC/g), the presences of rutin, p-coumari acid, catechin, chlorogenic acid, gallic acid, rutin, quercetin, and caffeic acid was confirmed	Cudalbeanu et al. (2018)
N.lotus	Acetone	UV-VIS spectrophotometer	Proanthocyanidins (299 mg/g), phenolic (96.3 mg/g), flavanols (42.94 mg/g), and flavonoids (6.34 mg/g)	Afolayan et al. (2013)
Petal of N.hybrid	HS-SPME	GC-MS	Alkenes, alcohols, alkanes, esters, aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, benzyl alcohol, pentadecane, trans-α-bergamotene, (E)-β-farnesene, and (6E,9E)−6,9-heptadecadiene,	Zhou et al. (2022)
Lotus leaf	HS-SPME	IS-CPR-IL-MCE coupled UHPLC	Five alkaloids (Neferine, Isoliensinine, liensinine, O-demethyl nuciferine and nuciferine) were extracted, concentrated and seperated	Zhu et al. (2022)
Whole plants of N.lotus	Aqueous	–	phenolic, flavonoid, tannin, saponins, alkaloids, quinones, catechins, anthroquinones, cardiac glycosides, and carbohydrate	Adelakun et al. (2015)
Stamen and perianth of N.lotus	–	HPLC	In stamen total phenolic (311.2- 619.2 mg/100 g DW), total flavonoid (475–711.6 mg/100 g DW), and monomeric anthocyanin (1.3–3.7 mg/100 g DW) and in perianth total phenolic contents (204.6 −266.7 mg/100 g DW), total flavonoid (303–451.9 mg/100 g DW) and monomeric anthocyanin (1.3–2.2 mg/100 g DW)	Tungmunnithum et al. (2022)
Stem of N.lotus	Ethanol	–	Phenolic, flavonoids, saponins, alkaloids, tannins, steroids, terpenoids and anthraquinone were the screened phytochemicals	Salisu & Nura (2022)
Leaf and flower of lotus	Methanol,acetone, hexane	Thin layer chromatography	Phenolic, flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins, tannins, steroids, glycosides were identified	Arjun et al. (2012)
Leaves of N.lotus	Aqueous Acetone	–	In aqueous extract of N.lotus proanthocyanindins (211.84 mg/g), phenolic (189.9 mg/g), flavanols (5.93 mg/g), flavonoids (5.93 mg/g), tannins (74.5 mg/g), steroids (32.5 mg/g) and acetone extract contains proanthocyanindins (299 mg/g), phenolic (96.3 mg/g), flavanols (42.994 mg/g), flavonoids (6.34 mg/g), tannins (64.71 mg/g), steroids (21.62 mg/g)	(Afolayan et al., 2013)
Leaves of N.lotus	Ethanol	–	The total flavonoid was (1.8- 2.2 g per 100 g of quercetin equivalent) and the total phenolic was (10.5–11.8 g /100 g of gallic acid equivalent)	N’guessan et al. (2021)
Flower, root, rhizome, leaf of N.caeruleae	Chloroform Methanol	–	Phenolic, flavonoids, tannins, anthocyanins, glycosides, and triterpenoids were present	Prasad & Savithramma (2016)

4.8. Antioxidant capacity

The extracts from water lilies and lotus are well recognized as a potential source of anti-oxidant. Methanol extract of boiled tuber of N.nouchali was reported to bear antioxidant phytochemicals that quench H₂O₂ which induce oxidative stress hence protect DNA against free radical-induced damage (Anand et al., 2019). Extracts of boiled rhizome have potent to scavenge free radicals and reduce starch induced postprandial glycemic through inhibition of α-glucosidase (Anand et al., 2021). In-vitro study conducted in Thailand on 95% extracts of water lily indicated that, the extracts was reported to had highest free radical scavenging activities as compared to l-ascorbic acid, α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibition as compared to acarbose (Boonpisuttinant et al., 2019). The rhizome also possesses free radicals scavenging activities, reducing power and strong inhibitory activities against the formation of glycation end products which linked to oxidative stress and development of diabetes mellitus 2 (Priyanka, Anand, Bhargavi, Zehra, & Tiwari, 2016). Study conducted in Bangladesh indicate, the antioxidant properties IC₅₀ value of N.nouchali (36.67 µg/mL) and N. rubra (28.48 µg/mL) have higher than reference ascorbic acid (9.56 µg/mL). However, the extract from N.lotus flowers bears stronger antioxidants than α-tocopherol with IC₅₀ of 85% of inhibition of lipid peroxidation (Saleem, Ahotupa, & Pihlaja, 2001). The N.nouchali boiled rhizome (NNBR) extracts have strong free radical scavenging activities against nitro blue tetrazolium, FeCl3, hydroxyl, superoxide, nitric oxide and lipid peroxidation (Anand et al., 2021). Phenolic and flavonoids compounds extracted from leaf of N.lotus was found to be twice more potent in scavenging DPPH radicals as compared to butylated hydroxytoluene, six fold more potent to inhibit lipid peroxidation as compared to gallic acid with low cytotoxicity to liver cell line (N’guessan et al., 2021). The methanolic extract of N.lotus was reported to contain low IC₅₀ (0.016 mg mL⁻¹) indicating a good source of natural antioxidants (Ibrahim et al., 2020). The stamen of N. lotus was reported to possess flavonoids compounds that mediate electron transfer to act as antioxidant (Tungmunnithum et al., 2022). The antioxidant activity in N.antares water lily leaves and petioles is assumed to be affected by different extraction pH conditions. The polyphenols oxidase activity was reported to be higher at pH 7.1 in leaves extract whereas polyphenols oxidase and peroxidase was reported to higher at pH 7.8 and 7.1 (Mohd et al., 2022). The maturity stages of seed of N.lotus were reported to affect the antioxidant power. Black seeds N.lotus had strong antioxidant power (87.67%) as compared to seeds of N.micrantha (83.92%) and red seeds (86.63%) of N.lotus due to the synergistic action of phenolic, flavonoids and tannins (Gueye et al., 2022). The antioxidant power of water lilies and lotus can be different based on assays used. The DPPH, Lipid peroxidation, superoxide scavenging activities of ethanol extract of N.nouchali was reported to be 25.42, 23.33 and 49.66 (LC₅₀ (µg/ml)), respectively (Ramesh et al., 2022). The antioxidant properties of water lilies and lotus can also be affected by solvents used to extract the phytochemicals. The major solvents used to extract phytochemical are methanol, ethanol, ethyl acetate, acetone and water. The antioxidant properties of N.alba extracted using ethanol was shown to be stronger than the aqueous extract by inhibiting DPPH, hydroxyl radical, nitric oxide scavenging activities when compared to ascorbic acid. The aqueous and ethanolic extract of N.pubescens was reported to 375.4 g/mL (weak) and 56.4 g/mL (strong) IC₅₀ values, respectively (Chandra et al., 2022). The solvent concentration, extraction time and ratio of solid to solvent affect the amounts of phytochemical and antioxidant power of the constituents. Response surface methodology was used to optimize ethanol concentration, extraction time and solid to solvent ratio and reported that phenolic, flavanoid, DPPH and FRAP were 51 mg GAE/g, 27.3 mg CE/g, 29.6 mmol TE/g and 21.4 mmol TE/g, respectively (Prikboonchan & Samavardhana, 2021). The ethanol extract of N. lotus was reported to give greater protective effect to cell membranes of RBC hemolysed by 2, 2-Azobis (2-amiinopropne) dihydrochloride (Semaming et al., 2018). Afolayan et al. (2013) observed the acetone extract of N.lotus has lower IC₅₀ for DPPH (0.016 mg mL⁻¹) and nitric oxide (0.022 mg mL⁻¹) radical scavenging activity. However, aqueous extract of N.lotus has lower IC₅₀ for ABTS (0.04 mg mL⁻¹) radical scavenging activity (Afolayan et al., 2013). The ethyl acetate extract of N.lotus leave was reported to possess phenolic and flavanoids that donate electrons to free radicals (Mahmud et al., 2020). The phytochemical extracts that has lower IC₅₀ is known to possess higher antioxidant power. In this regard, the crude extract of N.pubescens was reported to possess good DPPH free radical scavenging properties (1.43 µg/mL) as compared to N.nucifera (3.52 µg/mL). Furthermore, N.pubescens was reported to possess better α-glucosidase inhibition activity, as implicated in lower IC₅₀ (5.29 µg/mL) as compared to N.nucifera (29. 06 µg/mL) (Nishan, 2020).

4.9. Anti-nutritional contents

The rhizome of the water lily is a rich source of nutrients for eating, but because of the impact of some anti-nutritional composition, it is best advised that the bulb need to be processed by any other technique to remove the anti-nutritional content like phytates before consumption. The rhizome of water lily contains anti-nutrient like phytates (3.68 mg/100 g), oxalate (8.76 mg/100 g), tannins 13.63 (mg/100 g), and saponins 4.89 (mg/100 g). UV-VIS spectrophotometer analysis of acetone extract of N.lotus indicated the presence of anti-nutritional factors like tannins (64.7 mg/g), saponins (12.31 mg/g), alkaloids (0.86 mg/g) and steroids (21.62 mg/g) (Afolayan et al., 2013).

5. Health benefit of water lilies and lotus

The medicinal value of water lilies and lotus as confirmed in vivo and in vitro studies of were reported to be attributed to the presence of several phytochemicals like phenolic acids and flavonoids (Limwachiranon et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2021). Comprehensive review on seven different nymphaea species was reported to possess cardiovascular protective, hepatoprotective, antioxidant, nephroprotective, and anti-inflamatory activities (Prodhan & Mridu, 2023). The phytochemicals responsible for wide ranges of pharmacological activities are phenolic, flavonoids, alkaloids and other miscellaneous compounds (Kamdem et al., 2022). Anatomical parts, solvent used to extract phytochemicals and their health benefits of water lilies and lotus are presented in Table 5. In India, N.nouchali was reported to have health and nutritional benefits to marginalized communities (Jarapala et al., 2021). Nymphaea (water lily) has long history in traditional medicine as Ayurvedic herb. The water lily, also known as N.lotus, is a well-known traditional medicinal plant in China, India, Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Egypt, and many other African nations. The rhizome and roots of water lilies and lotus cure many disease and ailments. Similarly Nelumbo nucifera was reported to be used for traditional medicines to treat anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity, anti-angiogenic and anti-cancer activities (Tungmunnithum et al., 2018). N.pubescens is used as food and medicine by the local community of lebak area, Indonesia (Yuliarti et al., 2022). Nymphaea (water lily) has long history in traditional medicine as Ayurvedic herb. The phytoconstituents in water lily has the functions of hepato-protective, pain killer (analgesic), ant-inflammatory, anaphrodisiac, uterotonic, anti-diarrheal, antibacterial, and antitumor (Arooj et al., 2021). Alkaloids extracted from N.nucifera was reported to possess anti-depressant, anxiolytic, sedative-hypnotic, analgesia-potentiating action, antipsychotic, anticonvulsant and memory enhancer (Mitra et al., 2022) (). N.stellata and N.nouchali are an important water lilies that are widely used in Ayurveda and Siddha medicines for the treatment of abortion, liver disorders, blood dysentery, jaundice, dyspepsia, cystists, cytoxic, nephritis, blood purifier, insomnia, hemorrhoids, leucorrhoea, diabetes, inflammation, urinary disorders, blenorrhagia, menorrhagia, anti-cancer, immunomodulatory, menstruation disorders, and an aphrodisiac (Raja et al., 2010). Flowers of edible plants have health promoting compound (Rivas-García et al., 2021). Additionally, the aqueous extract of flower of N.lotus has androgenic and reproductive properties (Mireille et al., 2017).

Table 5. Health benefits of water lilies and lotus parts.

Water lilies/ lotus parts	Doses	Duration	Health benefits	Refs.
Petals of N.pubescens	200–1000 µg/kg	24 h	Extract of N.pubescens suppress melanoma cells progression by reducing oxidative stress in B16 melanoma cells. This extract can be used for pharmaceutical products for the treatment of melanoma	Aimvijarn et al. (2018)
Aqueous extract of N.lotus flowers	75 mg/kg	55 days	Increased index of libido (83.33%), sperm count, sperm viability, sperm motility, weight of testis and penis in albino male rats	Mireille et al. (2017)
Methanolic extracts of N.pubescens	0.5, 250, 500 mg/kg	28 days	Induced insulin production from pancreatic cells, decreased glycosylated hemoglobin, lipid profile and quenched lipid peroxidation in diabetes induced albino rats by alloxan monohydrate	Angadi et al. (2013)
Roots of N.tetragona	10 g/100 mL solvents	18–24 h	N.tetragona extract has good anti S.typhimurium activity (MIC 781 µg/mL) and quorum sensing inhibitor	Hossain et al. (2014)
Aqueous extract of N.lotus leaves	250,500,1000 mg/kg	24 h	Aqueous extract of N.lotus contains therapeutic potential against gastric ulcers in ethanol induced gastric lesions in rats	John-Africa et al. (2012)
Aqueous and ethanol extracts of N.lotus	20–200 mg/kg	1 h	Inhibit GABA ergic/ antioxidant signaling and glutamatergic neurotransmission in epilepsy induced mice using kainic acid	Ishola et al. (2022)
Aqueous leaves extract of N.lotus	50–250 mg/kg	7 days	Writhing, formalin tests, tail clip and hot plate test revealed peripheral and central anti-nociceptive activities through the interactions of opioid and alpha 2 adrenergic systems	Agbaje et al. (2020)
Leaves of N.lotus	20–40 g/kg	30 days	Treatment and management of anxiolytic/anxiety in mice	Aduema et al. (2018)

5.1. Uterotonic

Study in female rats was indicated that, the ethanol extract of N.alba produced a dose related increase in the force of uterine contraction similar to oxytocin (Bose, Sahoo, Rout, & Si, 2014)

5.2. An aphrodisiac

Study conducted in 40 male rats was indicated that, N.lotus (75 mg/kg) was suppressed the effects of erectile dysfunction induced by nitric oxide (Kameni et al., 2019). It was also indicated that N.lotus has double medicinal use, against erectile dysfunction and anxiety. Some species of water lilies (N.alba) contains nupharine and nymphaeine that has sedative and an aphrodisiac property.

5.3. Analgesic

Ethanolic extracts of N.lotus decrease pain sensation in mice (Aduema, Amah, Akunneh-Wariso, & Vidona, 2019). In another study, the crude leaf extracts of N.lotus was reported to possess anti-anxiety and antidepressant activities (Fajemiroye et al., 2018). The phytochemicals responsible for sedative and CNS depressant with mild anxiogenic effect from N.lotus were alkaloids, saponins, tannins, cardiac glycosides, flavonoids, and terpenoids (Folashade et al., 2021).

5.4. Anti-inflammatory

The methanolic extracts of bioactive constituent from N.lotus were reported to manage pain and inflammatory diseases (Rege et al., 2021). The high-resolution mass spectroscopic technique profiled secondary metabolites from N.nouchali that prevent oxidative stress stimulated diseases and disorders (Alam et al., 2021). Ethyl acetate fraction from N. hybrid was known to treat lipopolysaccharide inflammatory induced inflammation by blocking the activation of NF-κB and MAPKs pathways in RAW264 7 cells (Zhang et al., 2021).

5.5. Anti-microbial

The rhizomes and seeds of N.lotus reported to possess phytochemicals such as phenolic, flavanols, tannins, saponins, steroids, and proanthocyanidins that aid as effective antimicrobial (Adenola et al., 2021). The functional groups of phytochemicals in N.lotus extracted using water, ethanol and N-hexane were identified using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. These compounds are antimicrobial in nature, medicinal to human and animal diseases that are caused by multidrug resistant enteric bacteria (Jesse, 2020). Additionally, it was reported that N.lotus anthraquinones, alkaloids, terpenes, deoxy-sugar, and glycosides for controlling bacteria and fungi like Enterobacter spp., C.albicans and A.flavus responsible for middle ear infection. Moreover, Salisu and Nura (2022) reported the stem extract of N.lotus contains phytochemicals responsible for inhibiting the growth of Salmonella typhi and Enterococcus faecalis. The inhibition zone created by seed extracts for C.albicans, E.coli, S.aureus, and P.aeroginos were 19.3, 19.0, 15.7, and 19.7 mm, respectively (Anywar et al., 2014). Extracts from different parts of N.lotus were used to treat different bacteria and fungi. Ethanolic root extracts of N.lotus were reported to possess antimicrobials against multidrug resistance enteric bacteria (Adenola & Adeleke, 2021). Similar solvent (ethanol) was used by (Dissanayake & Bandaranayake, 2020) to extract bactericidal from N.nouchali. It was observed that 20 mg/mL and 100 mg/mL concentrations were bactericidal against E.coli and S.aureus respectively (Dissanayake & Bandaranayake, 2020). Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) prepared using root extract of N.alba at Au/root extract (0.24), pH (7.8) and sonication time (40 min) were reported to possess high antimicrobial activities against S.aureus and E.coli with minimum inhibitory concentration value of 100 µg Au/mL and 200 µg Au/mL, respectively (Cudalbeanu et al., 2021).

5.6. Hepato-protective

Medicinal plants that possess phenolic acids, flavonoids, alkaloids, triterpenoids, diterpenoids, monoterpenoids, chromenes, capsaicinoids, curcuminoids, and anthraquinones are major phytochemicals that are heptoprotective (Das et al., 2022). Ethanolic extracts of N.alba revealed the presence of phytoconstituents like phenolic, alkaloids, glycosides, steroids, flavonoids and tannin. Isostrictinin isolated from N.candida was reported to be hepatoprotective (hepatic fibrosis) in mice induced by 10% CCl₄ (Dong et al., 2022). The leaf extract of N.nucifera was reported to be hepatoprotective at doses of 300 and 500 mg/kg against CCl₄ induced liver toxicity in rats (Huang et al., 2010). Ethanolic extract of N.alba (400 mg/kg) significantly reduce liver functions tests like serum glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase, serum gluamic pyruvic transaminase, alkaline phosphatase, bilirubin and cholesterol level as compared to the control group (Paharia & Pandurangan, 2013). Rats feed at a dose of 250 mg/kg of N.lotus leaf extract twice for two weeks was reported to antagonize the liver damage induced by CCl₄ and aspirin (Usman et al., 2018).

5.7. Antihyperglycaemic and antihyperlipidaemic

Water lilies and lotus contain alkaloids important for bioactivities (Ren et al., 2019). Among the alkaloid, nymphayol (25, 26-dinorcholest-5-en-3b-ol) is the bioactive content in flower and leaf of N.stellata responsible to increase insulin levels in diabetic rat. The oral administration of nymphayol was reported to reduce blood glucose levels and stimulated pancreatic beta cells regeneration (Khyade, 2018). The ethyl acetate extract of lotus leaf (N.nucifera Gaertn.) had flavonoids that aid in reduction of blood glucose and hypoglycemic effect on streptozotocin induced diabetic mice (Rumanti et al., 2017). Rhizome of N.nouchali may become an important dietary supplement to reduce postprandial hyperglycemia and hyperlipidaemia, oxidative stress and can be considered as herbal therapeutics for the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus and obesity (Anand et al., 2021). These antihyperglycemic compounds can display strong inhibitory properties against intestinal α-glucosidase and pancreatic lipase and increase cellular glucose uptake activities. The inclusion of boiled rhizome of water lily into diabetics’ food were indicated to have several health benefits in managing hyperglycemia and resultant oxidative stress (Anand et al., 2021). Flowers of N.pubescens and N.nucifera were reported to possess antidiabetic activities (α-glucosidase inhibition) (Pokhrel et al., 2022). Similarly, the whole flower of N.lotus was reported to better food supplements and beneficial to diabetic patients (Chaiyawathanananthn et al., 2022). Nymphayol extracted from N.stellata is phytochemicals which has anti-diabetic properties was reported to improve damaged endocrine tissue and stimulates secretion of insulin in the β-cells (Raja et al., 2010). Phytochemical screening of lotus leaf extracts using ethyl acetate indicated the presence of flavonoids (150 mg/kg) that are responsible for the reduction of blood glucose on diabetic induced mice (Rumanti et al., 2017). The antidiabetic potential of N.nucifera and N.pubescens was compared. It was reported that N.nucifera, N. pubescens, and acarbose possessed IC₅₀ value of α-glucosidase inhibition activity of 66.32 µg/mL, 5.29 µg/mL, and 5.65 µg/mL, respectively (Pokhrel et al., 2022). Nymphaea species are effective aquatic plants to inhibit glycation end products and type II diabetes mellitus (Ishrat et al., 2021). Specifically, N.stellata was reported to possess anti α-glucosidase and α-amylase activities (Chaiyawathanananthn et al., 2022). Moreover, seven different water lilies species were reported to possess antihyperlipidemic, antihyperglycemic, glucose uptake and metabolizing protein expressing, pancreatic β cell-regenerating, insulin secretion, sensitivity promoting, and intestinal glucose metabolizing enzyme inhibiting (Prodhan & Mridu, 2023).

5.8. Anti-convulsant

Aqueous and ethanol extracts of N.lotus was reported to ameliorate neurotoxin induced seizures by enhancing the inhibition of Gamma aminobutryric acid neurotransmitter. The extracts also prevented kainic acid induced anxiety, depression and amnesia in mice (Ishola et al., 2022). Similarly, alcohol extract of N.indica possesses phytochemicals for treatment of epilepsy (Madhavan et al., 2009).

5.9. Anti-diarrheal

Traditionally the rhizome of N.lotus is used to cure diarrhea. Methanolic extracts of the rhizome of N.lotus was reported to have anti-diarrhoeal properties (Bello et al., 2016).

5.10. Anticancer

The in vitro studies on breast cancers, ovarian and prostate cancer cells indicated that, extracts of water lilies and lotus possess phytochemicals that can play significant role in cancer prevention. The ethanolic extract of N.nouchali was reported to shown superoxide scavenging, DPPH, lipid peroxidation and exhibit significant IC₅₀ values against MCF-7 cells (Ramesh et al., 2022). The ethanolic flower extracts of N.pubescens was reported to be cytotoxic against human breast carcinoma MCF and cervical carcinoma Hela cell lines with IC₅₀ value of 91.57 µg/mL and 99.6 µg/mL respectively (Selvakumari, Shantha, Purushoth, & Sreenathkumar, 2012). Whereas, the methanolic root and leaf extract of N.alba is promising against MCF-7 breast cancer, A2780/A2780cisR ovarian, and LNCaP prostate cells (Cudalbeanu et al., 2019). The same author was confirmed that, gold nanoparticles prepared using ultrasonic irradiation at Au/root extract ratio of 0.24, pH 7.8 and 40 min from root extracts of N. alba inhibit A2780 ovarian cancer cells by 50% at 51.9 µg Au/mL and 33.5 µg Au/mL concentrations (Cudalbeanu et al., 2021). Nymphayol (17-(hexan-2-yl)−10, 13-dimethylhexadecahydro1H-cyclopenta[a]phenanthren-3-ol) isolated from N.stellata was confirmed to inhibit MCF-7 breast cancer cells viability up to 78%, and the IC₅₀ value was observed as 2.8 µM in 24 h and 1.4 µM in 48 h (Al-Harbi et al., 2020).

6. Miscellaneous uses of water lilies and lotus

The major component of water lilies and lotus is starch (50%) that can be exploited as potential for food and non-food applications. Starch could be good biodegradable polymers for fabricating food packaging materials (Priyadarshini et al., 2022). Studies undertaken to prepare edible films from lotus seed starch, nisin and glycerol as plasticizer indicated that, it reduced the rate of browning, softening, and microbial growth of the pineapple fruit (Zhu, 2017). Water lilies and lotus can be low cost, eco-friendly and helpful for environmental management. The leaf of water lily (N.lotus) was reported to remove toxic dyes like malachite green from aqueous solution. Biochar (activated carbons) prepared from stem of N.lotus was reported to be better adsorbent of green dye from waste water (Jabar & Odusote, 2021). The phytochemicals found in water lilies and lotus, particularly flavonoids from N.lotus has potential for the development of cosmetics (Tungmunnithum et al., 2021). Flower of N.pubescens was reported to have great potential to prepare herb-based deodorant to inhibit the growth of S.aureus (Wanigasekara et al., 2022). The flowers of N.pubescens and N.nucifera were reported to be used during prayers in temples offerings in many countries. Moreover, the juice extract of N.nouchali blended with milk can potentially treat jaundice, anti-aging and helps to loss body weight in chehchu tribes of India (Jarapala et al., 2021). The ethanol extracts of petal and stamen of N.rubra was reported to possess skin lightening and anti-aging properties as it was confirmed on 30 volunteers painted twice for 60 days (Kamma et al., 2019). The leaf extracts of water lilies helps to control some vectors help the fight against malaria control. The N-hexane extracts of N.louts manage larvae of anopheles mosquito (Yakubu et al., 2017). Metabolimic analysis of middle cerebral artery occlusion rat serum using ultra performance liquid chromatography to quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry was elucidated the presence of nucifera that helps to improve neurological deficit scores, ameliorate cerebral edema, infraction, and anti-ischematic stroke properties (Wu et al., 2020). The leave extract of N.lotus help to manage some physiological activities of rat. It was reported that leaf extract of N.lotus reduce anxiety and fear in mice (Aduema et al., 2018). The optimum moisture content to dehull seed of N.pubescens is 10% (Fatimah et al., 2022). Supplementation of lily bulbs or lotus seed powder into goat milk was reported to improve water holding capacity, reduce fermentation time, and inhibit post-acidification during storage of goat yogurt (Zhao et al., 2022). Additionally, the flower of N.alba (400 mg/kg) extracted using ethanol was reported to be anti-ulcer, reduce gastric volume, free acidity and ulcer index (Paharia & Pandurangan, 2020). Methanolic extracts of N.tetragona was reported to inhibit quorum sensing-mediated virulence factors of bacteria (Hossain et al., 2015).

7. Conclusions and future perspectives

With the ever-increasing population growth and rapid dwindling of natural resources, it has become important to diversify the present time agricultural products with the cultivation of some wild varieties of edible tubers, rhizomes and corms in order to meet various human nutrient needs. Water liles and lotus have known to contain good source of protein, dietary fiber, carbohydrate, amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, minerals and phytochemicals that have health importance. More than 150 compounds have been identified from rhizome, seed, leaf, stem, flower and seed of water lilies and lotus. The in vitro and in vivo studies indicate water lilies and lotus are promising medicinal plants. It can be suggested that these edible aquatic plants could be commercially cultivated, harvested and processed to feed the increasing human population. It is recommended that, physicochemical, thermal, rheological and pasting properties of starch isolated from rhizomes, the nutritional value, and metabolites of seeds of water lilies and lotus need to be characterized. Moreover, studies involving in vivo and in vitro should be done to address safety, toxicity and cytotoxicity of water lilies and lotus extracts are recommended for application in food and pharmaceutical insustry.

Ethical statement

No human and animal study was conducted.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

• No data was used for the research described in the article.

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